Martin Bernal and describes Essay Example for Free

Martin Bernal and describes Essay Black Athena is the works of Martin Bernal and describes the Afro-asiatic roots of classical civilization in ancient Greece. Martin examines the perception of ancient Greece in relation to its African and Asiatic neighbours especially in West Europe. This occurred in the 18th century onwards and exhibits the denial by the western academia and the influence of the Greek culture on civilization. In his work Bernin does not support the Greek civilization as being founded by the Aryan settlers whose trace is Europe. He gives proves as to the arguments of the famous great Grecian thinkers like Plato, Socrates and Aristotle that Phoenician civilization originally colonized Greece. In this basis he comes up with a theory based on the methodology of these historians and this theory states that Greece was colonized by northern invaders with their existing colony established in Phoenicia. (Moore, 2001) He uses several examples to explain that countries of Africa like Egypt and those on the west are being admired by prominent European leaders because of their historical backgrounds. The current Greek language spoken in classical Grecian world has its roots in the proto Greek language and influence from other Anatolian languages that were spoken nearby. The culture in Greece is believed to have been developed as a result of comparison of unity of elements. Bernam puts great emphasis on the elements of Africa that shaped the Grecian history. He compares the 19th and 20th century eurocentrism with the development of the western appropriation culture and its development. He argues that the western world influenced the Modern Greek language terming the contact between the indo European languages and the culturally influenced Egyptian and Semitic languages as very key in the determination of the modern Grecian culture and language. He gives examples of some words being used in the modern language of Greece to have been from these origins. He estimates the introduction of the Greek alphabet to have been between the period 1800 and 1400 BC. (Moore, 2001) Bernal came to the conclusion that the relationship between ancient Greek and Egyptian influence should not be taken lightly. His background traces to the interests he had on Egypt since childhood and the inspirations by his father. He is further encouraged to take this direction by the discovery of the works of Cyrus Gordon and Astour. Afrocentrism which is now the most felt model in the North American primary and secondary schools has been noted to be the most significant and challenging developments in higher education systems and curriculums. It’s a model which encompasses both multi cultural and Afro Hellenic orientations. This simply means that it’s grounded in ethnic and cultural diversity and the aspect that it is attributed to Africa. In contrast with the black Athena which attributes the development of modern Greece to the western world, the Afrocentric model attributes it to be an abstract, intellectual civilization which is grounded in the traditional orientations of western civilization. Bernal’s discovery of the black Athena is the modern thinking of how the Greek world came into being but has been criticized as not with definite reasons as afrocentric movement. His was of a different order that racist and anti Semitic scholars only showed the historical facts from the Bronze Age onwards making the culture of Greece to be a product of only Egyptians and Levantines. He argues that for the complete concealing of the origin of the Greek culture we need to consider the north of Athens and the medditerenian island of Crete, civilizations which took place in the third millennium. Bernal’s case is different from the afrocentric models because it rests upon on legend and myth. It relies upon the stories told by the ancient Greeks like Aristotle and Aristotle. He interprets these stories as the memories of the Egyptian and Phoenician developments. There is a critic about this however because we need to ask ourselves ‘of what benefit is myths and legends? ’ (Bernal, 1987) Bernal attributes archaeology, myth and linguistic borrowings as evidence to the development in Greece. The history and development of Greece is of much importance to the culture adopted today in Greece. Without the historical base Bernal suggests that tracing of the Greek history and civilization would be very complicated. Bernal claims that approximately 30% of Greek is of Semitic origin, 20% from Egyptian origin and the rest from the ancient Greek origin. Critics however have suggested that his demonstrations is only based on the resemblance merely and not the principles of linguistic adaptation. Bernal takes the similarity of a few words and tries to generalize. The afro centric orientation is based on the western world and argues that linguistic development in Greek civilization has been natural like the development of any other language. (Bernal, 1987) The contention that the Egyptians were the greatest civilization in history is critically opposed by the Afrocentrists. Afrocentrists view the Egyptians as only blacks who cannot contribute anything to the civilizations which took place especially in Greece. Bernal regarded the developments of Greeks like the scientific and mathematical orientations as very important movements. It’s however criticized by the afrocentrics as a total disregard of the facts of chronology. Conclusion The black Athena and the afrocentric movements have had an influence to the history and civilizations of the current Grecian histories. In our study of the two models we need to understand the fact that the current ancient civilization is as a result of amalgamation of the two models. Bernal in his book Black Athena: The afroasiantic roots of Classical civilization addresses the issues which have made the Greek world today be the way it is. Reference: Bernal, M. (1987) Black Athena: Afroasiantic roots of Classical Civilization, Rutgers University press. Moore, D. (2001) Black Athena writes back, Duke University press.

Automated Power Pole Photography via Helicopters

Automated Power Pole Photography via Helicopters Fugro Roames aims to automate the process of acquiring high resolution pictures, to reduce the risk and cost associated with helicopter based pole top inspection. The project will focus on acquiring previously worked algorithms, as well as the introduction of model predictive control, to automate the overall process, while also presenting a working prototype to simulate the operation of the intended product. The following proposal will aim to describe the intended topic and scope, while also reviewing background information on aerial asset management and autonomous aerial photography related to the project. The report will also highlight all achievable milestones, and their respective tasks, within the project plan; as well as present a detailed OHS risk assessment of the projects practical and non-practical work. The work completed during the semester, will hope to provide sufficient groundwork for automated aerial asset management procedures, within the electrical distribution industry. Accurate and effective asset condition management is important to ensure the longevity of an electric distribution network, while maximising its performance and operational efficiency.[1] At present, an efficient and cost effective method to test the integrity of a network, requires the use of a human-piloted helicopter and a photographer to capture high resolution images of power poles and their subcomponents [2]. Fugro-Roames, a company which currently provides this to its customers, aims to reduce the risk and cost associated with helicopter based pole top inspection, by replacing the photographer with an automated camera gimbal to capture high resolution pictures of the network. Figure 1.1: Power Pole Photography [1] Automated aerial asset management in the context of this proposal refers to the use of aerial platforms, to asses specific assets in an easy and cost-efficient manner, without the need of manual involvement. Unfortunately, and as it will be discussed in Chapter 3, the project topic is a form of technology that has not been widely researched; however, various methods of aerial asset management, such as helicopters, UAVs or drones, do exist and are currently in use within the industry. 2.1 Project Outline It is the purpose of this project to develop a Receding Horizon Planner (RHP) in order to automate power pole photography using camera gimbal system. The RHP will based on the algorithms created by Dr. Michael Kearney, which provide a solution to the photograph feasibility, photograph scheduling, and gimbal trajectory planning problems [3]. For validation, the developed planner will be tested using simulation flight data provided by Fugro-Roames. Further testing will include the implementation of the RHP into a gimbal prototype, where sensitivity analyses and assessment of the initial assumptions will be completed to determine the projects limitations and outline recommendations for future work. A more defined project plan will be described in Chapter 4 below. 2.2 Motivation for Automated Aerial Asset Management In order to overcome the limitations associated with conventional asset management methods, a high resolution image capture system was developed and is now used to aid in the inspection, assessment and maintenance of electric distribution networks [4]. However, the overall cost associated with this method, outweights its improved efficiency, as it involves specialized labour (photographers) and the use of helicopters to complete the required task [5]. The motivation to introduce an automated aerial asset management system, requires for the reduction of risks and overall cost associated with the current model, as well as improving the quality and selection of photographs taken. 2.3 Project Aim, Objectives Intended Scope Since the project, and all information available, are sponsored and provided by FugroRoames, the aims and objectives have been defined by the companys desires for the finished product. Therefore, the aim and proposed purpose of the project is to reduce the cost and risk associated with helicopter based pole top inspection, with the use of a Receding Horizon Planner (RHP) that automates the movement and control of a camera gimbal system. Along with the proposed project aim, multiple objectives must also be met whilts completing the work required. These include improving the algorithms created by Dr. Kearney, obtaining accurate efficiency gains for the RHP, designing and building a working gimbal prototype to be used for testing, and providing sufficient ground work for actual on-site testing and implementation, with the use of a helicopter, of the RHP beyond the project. Similar to the projects aim and objectives, the intended scope has also been shaped by the companys desires for the final product. Therefore, the scope can be outlined as: Review of background information and related work Adaptation of algorithms created by Dr. Kearney Development of Receding Horizon Planner Design and build of a gimbal prototype Planner implementation and testing Analysis of results Sensitivity analysis Assesment of projects assumptions Evaluation of project and suggestion for future work Possible gimbal rig implementation and on-site testing Taking into account the scope described above, it seems logical to break the project into three specific sections; planner development and testing, prototype design and testing, and thorough result analysis. The development and testing of the Receding Horizon Planner involves the improvement of existing control algorithms, to implement and verify its overall efficiency, using available and provided data. The design and testing of the gimbal prototype, which should resemble the actual gimbal rig, involves the use of the developed Receding Horizon Planner to validate and improve previously obtained results. Finally, thorough result analysis requires the breakdown of the planner and obtained results, to find how assumptions, parameters and particular components were affetcted. Although automated aerial asset management is a form of technology that has not been widely researched, the following chapter will provide a complete review of background literature which would closely resemble the general subject matter. The review will be broken into two sections; aerial asset management, and autonomous aerial photography and gimbal control. Previous work related to these topics will be presented, reiterated and reviewed, focusing on sources related to asset management within the electric power distribution industry. 3.1 Aerial Asset Management Aerial asset management , within the electric power distribution industry, has been implemented to replace conventional asset management and inspection methods, and provide a fast and accurate way to determine any defects that could be present. Whitworth et al. [6], in a work sponsored by EA Tecnology, propose the use of a helicopter-mounted camera to capture and store visual information, in order to enhance the inspection of overhead power lines. In order to reduce camera shake and partially automate the inspection process, the authors recommend the use of an acquisition system, which finds and locks the camera to the location of the powerline, followed by a recursive algorithm that tracks the powerline smoothly, despite the translation of the helicopter. Similarly, Earp et al. [1][4] describe an aerial inspection technique, which was also developed by EA Technology, that uses high resoluion images to perform a detailed condition assessment on electrical towers within a distribution network. The authors break down the helicopter based condition assessment, which is considered an improvement from the video inspection method in [6], to include four different parts: Pre-flight Planning: Inspection requirements, photographic sequences, camera trajectories; as well as current wind and weather conditions, natural and man-made ground feature, and the locations of the electrical towers, are all taken into account during the pre-flight planning. Helicopter Inspection and Picture Acquisition: A high resolution digital camera is used to take a set number of images, per tower, to meet the inspection requirements. Satellite-based Global Positioning System (GPS) and moving map displays are used to georeference each photograph taken, back to the tower. Image Processing, Analysis and Condition Assessment: Captured images are examined and given a Condition Rating (CR), typically on a scale of 1 to 4 (1 describing best condition, 4 describing worst condition). The uniformity of the assessment, determined by the individual DNOs requirements, is ensured by this critical step and therefore requires for a detailed condition assessment criteria, application-specific workstations, and accurate in-house training programme for assessors. Condition Based Risk Management (CBRM): A process developed by EA Technology, it combines practical and theoretical knowledge about a specific asset, along with maintenance experience, in order to define its current condition. Taking a different approach, N. Ellis [7] investigates the use of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) to inspect power transition lines. The author investigated the cost, risks and overall efficiency that comes with the use of UAVs, searching for low budget automation strategies to be designed and tested. Unfortunately, due to government regulations and the high capital and operating cost of the UAV, lead the author to the conclusion that the technology is not feasible at the current time. As outlined by most of the sources presented, the introduction of aerial asset management techniques, has made a big improvement on the inspection, assessment and maintenance of an electrical distribution network. Whilst most models present techniques that far surpass conventional inspection methods, the cost that comes with the involvement of specialized labour and helicopters, leaves little room for errors and inconsistent results. However, although the implementation of an UAV was not possible due to the introduction of new risks, the automation techniques, presented in [7], can be applied to previously discussed aerial photography techniques, and mitigate/remove any currently involved risks. 3.2 Autonomous Aerial Photography and Gimbal Control Autonomous aerial photography and control, within the electric power distribution industry, is not a topic that has been widely researched or implemented. However, the use of a camera and aerial images to predict and control the movement of UAVs is something that is commonly discussed and will therefore, be the main focus for this section. E. Skjong et al. [8] investigate the recent commercial availability of UAVs within Search and Rescue (SAR) and Search and Tracking (SAT) applications. The authors then focus on the development of a SAT system, which is able to steer the UAV and focus the gimbal attitude on regions and objects of interest respectively, with the use of Model Predictive Control (MPC). The overall process is made autonomous by allowing computer vision to work directly with the UAV autopilot and MPC, so objects can be simultaneously detected and tracked in an efficient manner. Similarly, C.E. Lin and S. Yang [9] explore the use of UAVs to detect and track specific objects, with the help of aerial photography and camera gimbal control. The authors implement the use of an Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU), which consist of a gyroscope, accelerometer, and magnetometer, along with an Attitude and Heading Reference System (AHRS), to determine and ensure that the angles of the camera gimbal are in the correct reference frame. Both [8] and [9] use Global Positioning System (GPS) to determine the location of both the UAV and the target, using this relationship to implement a reliable autopilot flight control for target detection and photography. R.J. Rajesh and C.M. Ananda [10] move away from controlling the camera gimbal, attached to a UAV, and focus on stabilizing its movement to ensure that clear photograph and/or video footage is taken. The use of Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) controller is recommended by the authors, to compensate for the vibrations and gust, as well as control the position of the camera by stabilizing the movement of the gimbal. Manually tuning the controllers parameters is not recommended, as the process is considered time consuming and tedious, instead, the authors recommend the use of Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) as the preferred algorithm to complete this task. Uncertainty and disturbances are mentioned, but not properly investigated in [9], [8] and [10]. A. Ashok et al. [11] investigate the external disturbances that affect the UAVs, as well as the dynamic and parametric uncertainties that arise in the mathematical autonomous model when subjected to a number of operating conditions. The authors reiterate previous approaches taken to design a robust control system, including the use of a PID controller for linear [12] and linearized [13] models, as well as the use of a Linear Quadratic Gaussian (LQG) controller [14] in the presence of uncertainties, before the Uncertainty and Disturbance Estimation (UDE) method is chosen to synthesize the required controller. The control of a camera gimbal, as outlined by most of the sources above, is necessary in order to ensure the accuracy of photographs or video that is captured by the UAV. Although the use of conventional control methods is described above, only [8] focuses on the use of MPC, which is closely related to the project, to ensure that the UAV is able to detect and track objects efficiently and simultaneously. A clear representation of the projects tasks, has been outlined as a comprehensive project plan from the first to the final day of employment at Fugro-Roames. A visual representation and description of the plan is used to illustrate the timeline of the project, including all achievable milestones, which are related to the aims, objectives and intended scope of the project, discussed in section 1.2. 4.1 Visual Representation of Project Plan The use of a modified GANTT chart was implemented to showcase the proposed flow of the project, from the first to the last day of employment. The timeline is hence separated into 24 weeks that are broken into 5 days, in the same manner as the business week format, where the project milestones and their corresponding tasks are allocated a precise number of days in which work is scheduled to take place. Green solid bars represent the projects milestones, where red solid bars indicate their respective tasks. The progress of the overall project is tracked by the completion of every achievable milestone, which can only be completed by first completing their respective sub tasks. Completed milestones are shown with a blue line through the green bar, and completed tasks are shown with a yellow line through the red bar. Weeks 1 to 12, as shown in Figure 4.1, represent the core work to be completed, as Milestones 3-5 directly relate to the aims, objectives and intended scope of the project. Weeks 13 to 22, as shown in Figure 4.2, outline the analysis and completion of the final pieces of assessment, including the thesis report and demonstration, which require the content from previous milestones to be completed. Weeks 23 to 24, also shown in Figure 3.2, outline a possible Milestone that can be completed until the final day of employment at Fugro-Roames. This milestone does not affect the previous pieces of assessment; however, it will provide the company with important information that could prove vital to the future of the project. 4.2 Milestone Task Breakdown Milestone 1: Project Scope The project scope is necessary to determine the projects main objectives, and will therefore guide the work to be completed throughout the semester. To ensure all expectations are met, and the appropriate time is given to all project milestones, an agreement between academic and industry supervisors is necessary. Task ID Days Description Project evaluation 1.1 5 Evaluate the requirements of the project, including potential goals and outcomes. Collect all necessary information to present during the supervisor meeting. Supervisor meeting 1.2 1 Meet with the projects academic and industry supervisors to discuss the project scope, and agree on the due dates for all pieces of assessment. Scope confirmation agreement 1.3 2 Compile a detailed scope which highlights the projects objectives, as discussed during the supervisor meeting. Resources Workspace with an available computer Availability from both supervisors to organize a meeting Milestone Hazards and Risks Milestone 1 is essential to the project. Any delay could be considered a minor, but possible risk, as it affects the progress of the overall project. If this issue becomes bigger, and the project scope cannot be defined, then it can be classified as a major risk and mitigation strategies should be taken immediately. Clear communication between all parties involved, can reduce and remove the possibility of the identified risks from occurring. Milestone 2: Project Proposal The project proposal is the first piece of assessment, which must be completed as part of the responsibilities for completing the project placement. The report highlights the work from Milestone 1, as it expands on the agreed aims and objectives, outlines the background information related to the projects main topics, and presents a visual and a clear representation of the project plan. A detailed OHS risk assessment, which analyses the potential risk involved with the projects practical work, and any potential equipment used, will also be included in the proposal. Task ID Days Description Research of relevant material 2.1 5 Find background information and prior art related to the projects main topic. Project outline and intended scope 2.2 4 Expand on the projects scope decided in Task 1, expanding on the projects aims and objectives. Background and related work 2.3 3 Summarize and expand on the material obtained from Task 2.1. Project plan summary 2.4 3 Provide a detailed project plan, with logically ordered tasks and their respective milestones. OHS risk assessment 2.5 2 Compile an OHS risk assessment, which highlights the projects practical work and equipment used. Drafting and submission 2.5 5 Assemble the proposals individual sections, review the written report and submit via Turnitin. Resources Completion of Milestone 1 Confirmation of university assessment due dates OHS risk assessments, regarding the use and control of the gimbal rig Milestone Hazards and Risks The project proposal relies mostly on individual and previously completed work, however, certain sections require resources which are not readily available. The most significant obstacles, which would require mitigation, are the confirmation of all university assessment due dates and the risk assessments completed for the gimbal rig, which might be used during the project. Clear and constant communication with the universitys course coordinator, as well as the personnel in charge of the gimbal rig, is essential to mitigate and prevent any issues that could affect the completion of the project proposal. Milestone 3: Receding Horizon Planner Milestone 3 is the first milestone that uses the algorithms created by Dr. Kearney to develop an on-line planner that controls the photograph scheduling plan and the movement of the gimbal throughout the event horizon. The completed Receding Horizon Planner will involve the use of a low level controller, an upper level planner, and an event monitor, to be used in Milestones 4à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢7. Task ID Days Description Algorithm testing and improvement 3.1 5 Improve the current photograph feasibility algorithm, and test its efficiency. Model predictive control research 3.2 5 Find related material to be used when designing the Receding Horizon Controller. Lower level controller design implementation 3.3 5 The gimbal and camera are robustly controlled by the photograph scheduling algorithm chosen by the upper level planner. Upper level planner design implementation 3.4 5 Implemented the improved algorithm from Task 3.1 to generate a plan that the system will follow over a prediction horizon. Event monitor design implementation 3.5 4 Connect the results from Tasks 3.3 and 3.4 so that the plan is implemented and changed after certain events occur. Resources Programming and modelling software Access to the projects repository and previous work Milestone Hazards and Risks The progress of Milestone 3 could be significantly affected, if access to the necessary repositories and previous work is delayed. As previous algorithms are necessary to the development of the Receding Horizon Planner, the completion of the project would be significantly impacted. Clear communication with the right personnel can help mitigate this issue before it affect the timeline and progress of the project. Milestone 4: Planner Analysis and Improvement Rigorous testing of the developed Receding Horizon Planner is required to find the necessary efficiency gains, so the planner can be implemented on the projects physical equipment. Data obtained from Fugro Roames, as well as the analysis and reiteration of the testing completed, will be completed to improve the found controller gains. Task ID Days Description Test current and new scenarios 4.1 4 Implement the Receding Horizon Planner on several simulated scenarios, using data received from Fugro Roames. Reiteration of Receding Horizon Planner testing 4.2 3 Fix any errors found in Task 4.1 and repeat the tests. Determine accurate efficiency gains 4.3 3 Determine the required controller gains which provide the most accurate results. Resources Completion of Milestone 3 Sufficient testing data provided by Fugro Roames Milestone Hazards and Risks The lack of testing data used to complete this milestone, is a minor risk that could affect the project. Requesting said data ahead of time, would ensure that it is ready for when testing of the Receding Horizon Planner begins, leaving the project timeline unaffected. Milestone 5: Gimbal Prototype Milestone 5 marks a key point in the project, as the implementation of the Receding Horizon Planner on a working prototype is essential to the projects success. The design of the prototype will be based on the actual gimbal rig owned and created by FugroRoames, to facilitate the implementation of the planner for further testing, at the end of the project. Task ID Days Description Embedded system design and build 5.1 7 Design, build and combine the mechanical, electrical, and software components of the prototype. Implementation of Receding Horizon Planner 5.2 6 Test the Receding Horizon Planner using the gimbal prototype. Sensitivity Analysis 5.3 5 Identify and vary the dominant parameters, testing and improving the Receding Horizon Planner where possible. Resources Completion of Milestone 4 Mechanical, electrical and software design software Working space and necessary build equipment Development of testing scenarios Milestone Hazards and Risks Milestone 5 introduces the use of practical equipment to design, test and build each component of the gimbal prototype. The misuse of the practical equipment, and the lack of component testing, are immediate risks to the completion of the prototype. Following the risk assessment outlines on Chapter 4, as well as completing the required testing before the Receding Horizon Planner is implemented, can help mitigate the risks described and prevent possible delays. Milestone 6: Assessment of Projects Assumptions As previously shown by Dr. Kearney, on the initial report he completed for Fugr-Roames, the introduction of the Receding Horizon Planner required changes to the initial assumptions made when designing the projects photograph allocation and gimbal control algorithms. The change and/or the addition of assumptions, by analysing the projects missing parameters is, therefore, also essential when validating the results obtained in Milestone 5. Task ID Days Description Identify missing parameters 6.1 2 Determine the projects missing parameters based on the assumptions made by Dr. Kearney on his report. Evaluate the effects of missing parameters 6.2 3 Assess how the model is affected by each missing parameter. Update the projects assumptions 6.3 2 Compose a list of updated assumptions based on the results from tasks 6.1 and 6.2, to be used on further work. Resources Completion of the Sensitivity Analysis Task within Milestone 5 Milestone Hazards and Risks The risks to Milestone 6 are relatively small, where the largest possible problem involves the inability to identify the effects of the projects missing parameters. Keeping a record of all parameter changes/assumptions made during previous tests is the best solution to mitigate/prevent this issue. Milestone 7: Project Evaluation and Recommendation for Future Work Identifying the projects limitations is an important process, as it allows recommendations for future work to be made and included on the final thesis report. Task ID Days Description Identify projects limitations 7.1 3 List the projects limitations, based on the results from Task 6. Develop accurate recommendations 7.2 3 Expand on previous work and results from Tasks 6.1 to 6.3, including 7.1, to develop accurate recommendations for future work. Resources Development of the Receding Horizon Planner Sensitivity analysis of the gimbal prototype Completion of Milestone 6 Milestone Hazards and Risks The completion of Milestone 7 is only affected by the work done in previous milestones. If previous tasks are delayed, any future recommendations run the risk of not being completed. To prevent this from affecting the final stages of the project, the plan/timeline outlined should always be followed, noting wher

Uses Of Computer Network Data Transmission Modes Information Technology Essay

Uses Of Computer Network Data Transmission Modes Information Technology Essay We all are aware with some sorts of communication in our day to day life. For communication of information and messages we use telephone and postal communication systems. Similarly data and information from one computer system can be transmitted to other systems across geographical areas. Thus data transmission is the movement of information using some standard methods. These methods include electrical signals carried along a conductor, optical signals along an optical fibers and electromagnetic areas. Suppose a Managing Director of a company has to write several letters to various employees . First he has to use his PC and Word Processing package to prepare his letter. If the PC is connected to all the employees PCs through networking, he can send the letters to all the employees within minutes. Thus irrespective of geographical areas, if PCs are connected through communication channel, the data and information, computer files and any other program can be transmitted to other computer systems within seconds. The modern form of communication technologies like e-mail and Internet is possible only because of computer networking. Computers are powerful tools. When they are connected in a network, they become even more powerful because the functions and tools that each computer provides can be shared with other computers. Networks exist for one major reason: to share information and resources. Networks can be very simple, such as a small group of computers that share information, or they can be very complex, covering large geographical areas. Regardless of the type of network, a certain amount of maintenance is always required. Because each network is different and probably utilizes many various technologies, it is important to understand the fundamentals of networking and how networking components interact. In the computer world, the term network describes two or more connected computers that can share resources such as data, a printer, an Internet connection, applications, or a combination of these. Prior to the widespread networking that led to the Internet, most communication networks were limited by their nature to only allow communications between the stations on the network. Some networks had gateways or bridges between them, but these bridges were often limited or built specifically for a single use. One common computer networking method was based on the central mainframe method, simply allowing its terminals to be connected via long leased lines. This method was used in the 1950s by Project RAND to support researchers such as Herbert Simon, in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, when collaborating across the continent with researchers in Santa Monica, California, on automated theorem proving and artificial intelligence. At the core of the networking problem lay the issue of connecting separate physical networks to form one logical network. During the 1960s, several groups worked on and implemented packet switching. Donald Davies, Paul Baran and Leonard Kleinrock are credited with t he simultaneous invention. The notion that the Internet was developed to survive a nuclear attack has its roots in the early theories developed by RAND. Barans research had approached packet switching from studies of decentralisation to avoid combat damage compromising the entire network. By mid-1968, Taylor had prepared a complete plan for a computer network, and, after ARPAs approval, a Request for Quotation (RFQ) was sent to 140 potential bidders. Most computer science companies regarded the ARPA-Taylor proposal as outlandish, and only twelve submitted bids to build the network; of the twelve, ARPA regarded only four as top-rank contractors. At years end, ARPA considered only two contractors, and awarded the contract to build the network to BBN techologies on 7 April 1969. The initial, seven-man BBN team were much aided by the technical specificity of their response to the ARPA RFQ and thus quickly produced the first working computers. The BBN-proposed network closely followed Taylors ARPA plan: a network composed of small computers called Interface message processor (IMPs), that functioned as gateways (today routers) interconnecting local resources. At each site, the IMPs performed store-and-forward packet switching functions, and were interconnected with modems that were connected to leased line, initially running at 50 kilobit/second. The host computers were connected to the IMPs via custom serial communication interfaces. The system, including the hardware and the packet switching software, was designed and installed in nine months. The first-generation IMPs were initially built by BBN Technologies using a rough computer version of the Honeywell DDP-516 computer configured with 24 Kilobyte of expandable core memory, and a 16-channel Direct Multiplex Control (DMC) Direct Memory Access unit. The DMC established custom interfaces with each of the host computers and modems. In addition to the front-panel lamps, the DDP-516 computer also features a special set of 24 indicator-lamps showing the status of the IMP communication channels. Each IMP could support up to four local hosts, and could communicate with up to six remote IMPs via leased lines. 1.2 ARPANET The Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET), was the worlds first operational Packet Switching network and the core network of a set that came to compose the global Internet. The network was created by a small research team at the Massachusettas Institute of Technology and the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) of the Defence Department of United States. The packet switching of the ARPANET was based on designs by Lawrence Roberts of the Lincoln Laboratories. Packet switching is the dominant basis for data communications worldwide and it was a new concept at the time of the conception of the ARPANET. Data communications had been based on the idea of Circuit Switching, as in the traditional telephone circuit, wherein a telephone call reserves a dedicated circuit for the duration of the communication session and communication is possible only between the two parties interconnected. With packet switching, a data system could use one communications link to communicate with more than one machine by collecting data into Datagram and transmit these as Packet onto the attached network link, whenever the link is not in use. Thus, not only could the link be shared, much as a single PostBox can be used to post letters to different destinations, but each packet could be routed independently of other packets. 1.3 SNA Systems Network Architecture (SNA) is IBMs proprietary Computer Network architecture created in 1974. It is a complete Protocol Stack for interconnecting Computer and their resources. SNA describes the protocol and is, in itself, not actually a program. The implementation of SNA takes the form of various communications packages, most notably Virtual telecommunications access method (VTAM) which is the mainframe package for SNA communications. SNA is still used extensively in banks and other financial transaction networks, as well as in many government agencies. While IBM is still providing support for SNA, one of the primary pieces of hardware, the IBM 3745/3746 communications controller has been withdrawn from marketing by the IBM Corporation. However, there are an estimated 20,000 of these controllers installed and IBM continues to provide hardware maintenance service and micro code features to support users. A strong market of smaller companies continues to provide the 3745/3746, features, parts and service. VTAM is also supported by IBM, as is the IBM Network Control Program (NCP) required by the 3745/3746 controllers. IBM in the mid-1970s saw itself mainly as a hardware vendor and hence all its innovations in that period aimed to increase hardware sales. SNAs objective was to reduce the costs of operating large numbers of terminals and thus induce customers to develop or expand Interactive terminal based-systems as opposed to Batch Processing systems. An expansion of interactive terminal based-systems would increase sales of terminals and more importantly of mainframe computers and peripherals partly because of the simple increase in the volume of work done by the systems and partly because interactive processing requires more computing power per transaction than batch processing. Hence SNA aimed to reduce the main non-computer costs and other difficulties in operating large networks using earlier communications protocols. The difficulties included: A communications line could not be shared by terminals whose users wished to use different types of application, for example one which ran under the control of CICS and another which ran under Time Sharing Option. Often a communications line could not be shared by terminals of different types, as they used different vernacular of the existing communications protocols. Up to the early 1970s, computer components were so expensive and bulky that it was not feasible to include all-purpose communications interface cards in terminals. Every type of terminal had a Hardwired Control communications card which supported only the operation of one type of terminal without compatibility with other types of terminals on the same line. The protocols which the primitive communications cards could handle were not efficient. Each communications line used more time transmitting data than modern lines do. Telecommunications lines at the time were of much lower quality. For example, it was almost impossible to run a dial-up line at more than 300 bits per second because of the overwhelming error rate, as comparing with 56,000 bits per second today on dial-up lines; and in the early 1970s few leased lines were run at more than 2400 bits per second (these low speeds are a consequence of Shannon-Hartly Theorm in a relatively low-technology environment). Telecommunications companies had little incentive to improve line quality or reduce costs, because at the time they were mostly monopolies and sometimes state-owned. As a result running a large number of terminals required a lot more communications lines than the number required today, especially if different types of terminals needed to be supported, or the users wanted to use different types of applications (.e.g. under CICS or TSO) from the same location. In purely financial terms SNAs objectives were to increase customers spending on terminal-based systems and at the same time to increase IBMs share of that spending, mainly at the expense of the telecommunications companies. SNA also aimed to overcome a limitation of the architecture which IBMs System/370 mainframes inherited from System/360. Each CPU could connect to at most 16 channels (devices which acted as controllers for peripherals such as tape and disk drives, printers, card-readers) and each channel could handle up to 16 peripherals i.e. there was maximum of 256 peripherals per CPU. At the time when SNA was designed, each communications line counted as a peripheral. Thus the number of terminals with which powerful mainframe could otherwise communicate is severely limited. SNA removed link control from the application program and placed it in the NCP. This had the following advantages and disadvantages: Advantages Localization of problems in the telecommunications network was easier because a relatively small amount of software actually dealt with communication links. There was a single error reporting system. Adding communication capability to an application program was much easier because the formidable area of link control software that typically requires interrupt processors and software timers was relegated to system software and NCP. With the advent of APPN, routing functionality was the responsibility of the computer as opposed to the router (as with TCP/IP networks). Each computer maintained a list of Nodes that defined the forwarding mechanisms. A centralized node type known as a Network Node maintained Global tables of all other node types. APPN stopped the need to maintain APPC routing tables that explicitly defined endpoint to endpoint connectivity. APPN sessions would route to endpoints through other allowed node types until it found the destination. This was similar to the way that TCP/IP routers function today. Disadvantages Connection to non-SNA networks was difficult. An application which needed access to some communication scheme, which was not supported in the current version of SNA, faced obstacles. Before IBM included X.25 support (NPSI) in SNA, connecting to an X.25 network would have been awkward. Conversion between X.25 and SNA protocols could have been provided either by NCP software modifications or by an external protocol converter. A sheaf of alternate pathways between every pair of nodes in a network had to be predesigned and stored centrally. Choice among these pathways by SNA was rigid and did not take advantage of current link loads for optimum speed. SNA network installation and maintenance are complicated and SNA network products are (or were) expensive. Attempts to reduce SNA network complexity by adding IBM Advanced Peer-to-Peer Networking functionality were not really successful, if only because the migration from traditional SNA to SNA/APPN was very complex, without providing much additional value, at least initially. The design of SNA was in the era when the concept of layered communication was not fully adopted by the computer industry. Applications, Database and communication functions were come together into the same protocol or product, to make it difficult to maintain or manage. That was very common for the products created in that time. Even after TCP/IP was fully developed, X Window system was designed with the same model where communication protocols were embedded into graphic display application. SNAs connection based architecture invoked huge state machine logic to keep track of everything. APPN added a new dimension to state logic with its concept of differing node types. While it was solid when everything was running correctly, there was still a need for manual intervention. Simple things like watching the Control Point sessions had to be done manually. APPN wasnt without issues; in the early days many shops abandoned it due to issues found in APPN support. Over time, however, many of the issues were worked out but not before the advent of the Web Browser which was the beginning of the end for SNA. 1.4 X.25 and public access Following on from DARPAs research, packet switching networks were developed by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) in the form of X.25 networks. In 1974, X.25 formed the basis for the SERCnet network between British academic and research sites, which would later become JANET. The initial ITU Standard on X.25 was approved in March 1976. The British Post Office, Western Union International and Tymnet collaborated to create the first international packet switched network, referred to as the International Packet Switched Service (IPSS), in 1978. This network grew from Europe and the US to cover Canada, Hong Kong and Australia by 1981. By the 1990s it provided a worldwide networking infrastructure. Unlike ARPAnet, X.25 was also commonly available for business use. X.25 would be used for the first dial-in public access networks, such as Compuserve and Tymnet. In 1979, CompuServe became the first service to offer electronic mail capabilities and technical support to personal computer users. The company broke new ground again in 1980 as the first to offer real-time chat with its CB Simulator. There were also the America Online (AOL) and Prodigy dial in networks and many bulletin board system (BBS) networks such as The WELL and FidoNet. FidoNet in particular was popular amongst hobbyist computer users, many of them hackers and radio amateurs. 1.5 UUCP In 1979, two students at Duke University, Tom Truscott and Jim Ellis, came up with the idea of using simple Bourne shell scripts to transfer news and messages on a serial line with nearby University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Following public release of the software, the mesh of UUCP hosts forwarding on the Usenet news rapidly expanded. UUCPnet, as it would later be named, also created gateways and links between FidoNet and dial-up BBS hosts. UUCP networks spread quickly due to the lower costs involved, and ability to use existing leased lines, X.25 links or even ARPANET connections. By 1983 the number of UUCP hosts had grown to 550, nearly doubling to 940 in 1984 1.6 Uses of Computer Networks Computer networks have many uses in present life. However, the usage goes on increasing from day to day, More and more people use networks for their corresponding applications and thus increasing the area of usage. However, we categorize the usage of computer network as follows Resource Sharing: The global here is to make all programs equipment and especially data available to anyone on the network without regard to the physical location of the resource and the user. High Reliability: Always all the files could be replicated on one or more machine. So if one of them is unavailable the other copies could be used for the reference. Saving money: Small computers have a much better price / performance ratio than larger ones .Mainframes are roughly a factor of ten faster than personal computers, but they cost Thousand times more. This imbalance has caused many system designers to build systems Consisting of personal computers, with data kept on more than one machine Communication medium: A computer network can provide a powerful communication medium among widely separated employees. Using a network, it is easy for two or more people who live far apart to write a report together. When one person makes a change, the other can easily look into that and convey his acceptance. Access to remote information: Many People, pay their bills, manage their accounts, Book tickets, electronically. Home shopping has also become popular, with the ability to inspect the on-line catalogs of thousands of companies. There are also cases where people are able to get information electronically. Email: Electronic Mail or E-Mail is an application through which a person can communicate With another person present anywhere. E Mail is used today by millions of people and they Can send audio or video in addition to text. WWW (World Wide Web) : A main application that falls into the application category is access to information systems like the current World wide Web, which contains information about arts, books, business, cooking, government, health so on. 1.7. Data Transmission Modes: Data communication circuits can be configured in a huge number of arrangements depending on the specifics of the circuit, such as how many stations are on the circuit, type of transmission facility, distance between the stations, how many users at each station and so on. Data communication circuits can however be classified as either two point or multipoint . A two-point configuration involves only two stations, whereas a multipoint configuration involves more than two stations. Regardless of configuration, each station can have one or more computers, computer terminals or workstations. A two point circuit involves the transfer of digital information from a mainframe computer and a personal computer, two mainframe computers, two personal computers or two data communication networks. A multipoint network is generally used to interconnect a single mainframe computer to many personal computers or to interconnect many personal computers. Coming to transmission modes, there are four modes of transmission for data communication circuits namely- 1. Simplex 2. Half-Duplex 3. Full Duplex Simplex In a simplex mode, the transmission of data is always unidirectional. Information will be sent always only in one direction Simplex lines are also called receive-only, transmit-only, or one-way-only lines. A best example of simplex mode is Radio and Television broadcasts. Fig. 1.1 Simplex Communication Half-Duplex In the half-duplex mode, data transmission is possible in both the directions but not at the same time. When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice-versa. These communication lines are also called two-way-alternate or either-way lines. Fig. 1.2 Half Duplex Communication Full Duplex In the full-duplex mode, the transmissions are possible in both directions simultaneous, but they must be between the same two stations. Full-duplex lines are also called two-way simultaneous duplex or both-way lines. A good example for full-duplex transmission is a telephone Fig. 1.3 Full Duplex Communication Types of Data Transmission Modes There are two types of data transmission modes. These are: Parallel Transmission Serial Transmission 1. Parallel Transmission In parallel transmission, bits of data flow concurrently through separate communication lines. Parallel transmission is shown in figure below. The automobile traffic on a multi-lane highway is an example of parallel transmission. Inside the computer binary data flows from one unit to another using parallel mode. If the computer uses 32-bk internal structure, all the 32-bits of data are transferred simultaneously on 32-lane connections. Similarly, parallel transmission is commonly used to transfer data from computer to printer. The printer is connected to the parallel port of computer and parallel cable that has many wires is used to connect the printer to computer. It is very fast data transmission mode. 2. Serial Transmission In serial data transmission, bits of data flow in sequential order through single communication line. Serial dat transmission is shown in figure below. The flow of traffic on one-lane residential street is an example of serial data transmission mode. Serial transmission is typically slower than parallel transmission, because data is sent sequentially in a bit-by-bit fashion. Serial mouse uses serial transmission mode in computer. Synchronous Asynchronous Transmissions Synchronous Transmission In synchronous transmission, large volumes of information can be transmitted at a time. In this type of transmission, data is transmitted block-by-block or word-byword simultaneously. Each block may contain several bytes of data. In synchronous transmission, a special communication device known as synchronized clock is required to schedule the transmission of information. This special communication device or equipment is expensive. Asynchronous Transmission In asynchronous transmission, data is transmitted one byte at a time. This type of transmission is most commonly used by microcomputers. The data is transmitted character-by-character as the user types it on a keyboard. An asynchronous line that is idle (not being used) is identified with a value 1, also known as Mark state. This value is used by the communication devices to find whether the line is idle or disconnected. When a character (or byte) is about to be transmitted, a start bit is sent. A start bit has a value of 0, also called a space state. Thus, when the line switches from a value of 1 to a value of 0, the receiver is alerted that a character is coming.

Clean Coal Technology :: Energy Environment Environmental

Clean Coal Technology The Sun is one of the most valuable resources to us as human beings and we would not exist without it. It has provided the earth with energy since the beginning of the universe. One way that the power of the sun is utilized by us is through the use of fossil fuels. Fossil fuels are essentially energy stored by the sun from milllions of years ago. One of our most valuable fossil fuels is coal. We have been using it for decades, but are just now learning all of the negative drawbacks that come with burning coal. That is why many people are turning to Clean coal technology to continue to utilize coal for a power source. Clean Coal Technologies (CCTs) are defined by the WCI as 'technologies designed to enhance both the efficiency and the environmental acceptability of coal extraction, preparation and use' . These technologies reduce emissions, reduce waste, and increase the amount of energy gained from each ton of coal. There are a wide variety of technologies that are available to improve our coal performance. This can be done by: Enhancing of existing options, Deploying of Advanced Technologies, Exploiting Synergies with Renewables, and Development and Commercialization of Next Generation Technologies (â€Å"Coal†). Some environmental problems that they will be trying to address are: Particulate matter, trace elements and SOX and NOX, and mercury. There are numerous companies that think that there is a strong future for coal power both in the Us and around the world. The CCPC's mandate (Canada.) is to research, develop and demonstrate commercially viable clean coal technology. They plan to build a full-scale, coal-fired demonstration plant in the next decade. The demonstration plant, expected to be in operation by 2012, will be designed to remove greenhouse gas and all other emissions of concern from a 'greenfield' facility(Canada). The Combustion Engineering Association seeks to promote the science of combustion engineering and to promote best practice. Through Education, Representation, Promotion, and specialty advice they plan to help coal companies. Meeting rising demand for clean, reliable and affordable electricity will require the use of coal for the foreseeable future, which in turn will require the development and demonstration of new, environmentally-sound technologies for coal-based electricity generation. Clean Coal Technology :: Energy Environment Environmental Clean Coal Technology The Sun is one of the most valuable resources to us as human beings and we would not exist without it. It has provided the earth with energy since the beginning of the universe. One way that the power of the sun is utilized by us is through the use of fossil fuels. Fossil fuels are essentially energy stored by the sun from milllions of years ago. One of our most valuable fossil fuels is coal. We have been using it for decades, but are just now learning all of the negative drawbacks that come with burning coal. That is why many people are turning to Clean coal technology to continue to utilize coal for a power source. Clean Coal Technologies (CCTs) are defined by the WCI as 'technologies designed to enhance both the efficiency and the environmental acceptability of coal extraction, preparation and use' . These technologies reduce emissions, reduce waste, and increase the amount of energy gained from each ton of coal. There are a wide variety of technologies that are available to improve our coal performance. This can be done by: Enhancing of existing options, Deploying of Advanced Technologies, Exploiting Synergies with Renewables, and Development and Commercialization of Next Generation Technologies (â€Å"Coal†). Some environmental problems that they will be trying to address are: Particulate matter, trace elements and SOX and NOX, and mercury. There are numerous companies that think that there is a strong future for coal power both in the Us and around the world. The CCPC's mandate (Canada.) is to research, develop and demonstrate commercially viable clean coal technology. They plan to build a full-scale, coal-fired demonstration plant in the next decade. The demonstration plant, expected to be in operation by 2012, will be designed to remove greenhouse gas and all other emissions of concern from a 'greenfield' facility(Canada). The Combustion Engineering Association seeks to promote the science of combustion engineering and to promote best practice. Through Education, Representation, Promotion, and specialty advice they plan to help coal companies. Meeting rising demand for clean, reliable and affordable electricity will require the use of coal for the foreseeable future, which in turn will require the development and demonstration of new, environmentally-sound technologies for coal-based electricity generation.

Poverty and Voting in America Essay -- American United States Politics

Review of the Literature: For my topic of research, the dynamics of poverty and voting in America, I used a vast number of sources in an attempt to produce the most accurate and broad discussion possible. The sources I believe to be the most reliable were: 1) the scholarly works (Friedman; Raskin), which were purely scientific and did not include political biases, but rather examined the facts from as neutral a point of view as possible; 2) the government reports (DeNavas-Walt; Dept. of Commerce; Dept. of Labor, McNeil), which also appeared to be politically neutral and created in a scientific fashion. These two types of sources mainly provided statistics on voting and poverty numbers through charts and graphs. The next set of sources came from less reliable media (â€Å"Election†; Loughlin; Wetherell), but still were purely observational and not opinionated. They came from online news sites, so they cannot be considered as academic as the first set, but the type of articles they are leaves little for the author’s own opinion. They also weren’t intentionally targeting a specific political party or ideology. The following set of sources hint of bias in the way they present their information, but the information itself seems scientific (Cervantes; Drum; Piven). These sources integrate some liberal opinions of the information into the material; however, they give seemingly accurate facts. â€Å"America,† James, and Wicker make up the next group of sources, which aren’t necessarily biased, but are more opinionated than factual. Facts are provided, but the authors’ ideas play a large part in these works. They are fairly neutral politically, however, and look at government more as a whole; both political parties are criticize... ...rg. 2005. Center for Community Change. 1 March 2006 . ProjectVote.org. 2004. Project Vote. 1 March 2006 . Raskin, Jamin B. â€Å"Race, Poverty and the ‘Wealth Primary.’† Poverty & Race. 6.2 (1997): 1-5. Shipler, David K. The Working Poor: Invisible in America. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2004. Sood, Suemedha. â€Å"You don’t need a home to vote.† Alternet.com. 26 August 2004. Independent Media Institute. 1 March 2006 . Wetherell, Derrick. â€Å"The Bush 100: Center Releases Report on Bush’s Top Appointees.† Publicintegrity.org. 14 January 2002. The Center for Public Integrity. 12 February 2006 . Wicker, Tom. â€Å"Delivering the Vote.† New York Times. 15 August 1971, E15 (1 page).

Prehistoric Medicine Essay

They used herbalism; the practise of using herbs to heal people. In each tribe there were shamans who would ‘exorcise ill people’ demons’ and apothecary. They had medicine men who were shamans and witch-doctors. They would provide supernatural treatments like charms, spells and amulets to ward off evil spirits. If someone was ill the medicine man would initiate a ceremony over the patient where they would use magic formulas prayers and drumming. People thought that the medicine men could contact the spirits or Gods so people looked up to them. They used healing clays to heal their internal and external wounds and just after surgery. Prehistoric people also used trepanning mainly in Peru. This was when they would drill a hole in a person’s skull to relieve pressure. It was mainly done as an emergency operation after a head wound to remove shattered bits of bone. They believed it would treat epileptic seizures, migraines and mental disorders. They would keep the bit of skull around their neck as they thought it would ward off evil spirits. Nowadays people use a modernised trephine instrument in a corneal transplant surgery. Early medicine for Greeks and Romans: Hippocrates: Born 470 BCE ‘Father of Modern Medicine’ He had a theory of the 4 humours. He thought that the human body contained 4 important liquids called humours. They thought if the humours became unbalanced then people would become ill. The 4 humours were black bile, yellow bile blood and phlegm. His theory was wrong but it was a breakthrough in medicine because it made people think that illness was caused by something natural inside your body instead of the Greek Gods. Quote from a book in the Hippocratic Collection of books: ‘Man’s body†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦has blood, phlegm, yellow bile and melancholy (black) bile. These make up his parts and through them he feels illness or enjoys health. When all these elements are truly balanced and mingled, he feels the most perfect health. Illness occurs when one of these humours is in excess or is lessened in amount or is entirely thrown out of the body.’ Hippocrates invented the Hippocratic Oath which was taken by all physicians; this is still in use today. Herophilus: He was the 1st anatomist. He introduced the experimental method to science. He discovered that the brain controls how the body works, not the heart by dissecting human bodies. He also identified parts of the stomach. He did a lot of work on nerves. Claudius Galen: He was the Roman Emperor’s doctor. Galen’s work was based on the Hippocratic Collection. He was one of the Great surgeons of the ancient world. He added his own theory to the 4 humours theory. He developed a theory called the ‘treatment of opposites’. So if an illness was caused by heat he would cool them down and vice versa. Galen also emphasized the importance of clinical observation and would take detailed notes on his examination of his patients. He was one of the 1st physicians who used experiments in his medical investigation. Through that he proved that urine was formed in the kidney as opposed to the bladder. His most important discovery was that the arteries carried blood but he never discovered circulation.

Corruption and Neoliberalism in the Philippines Essay

Despite this year’s onslaught of devastating earthquakes, factional rebel sieges, and most recently, record breaking typhoons, the Philippines is doing surprisingly well for itself. In fact, The Economist Intelligence Unit reports that though the wreckage caused by last weeks Supertyphoon Haiyan will likely slow GDP somewhat, economic damage will not be significant, the Eastern Visayas region accounting for only two per cent of the countrys GDP. Economically, at least, the Philippines has had good year: the first half of 2013 saw GDP growth at 7. 3 percent, the highest growth rate in Asia; it saw seen record foreign direct investment levels; moved itself from low-income to middle-income country in the World Bank country database; and for the first time, became a creditor rather than debtor to the International Monetary Fund (IMF) (Desierto, The Economist). Nevertheless, the poverty rate remains at 27. percent with little movement in the past five years, unemployment is at seven percent, and underemployment continues to hover around twenty percent (The Economist Intelligence Unit). Despite record growth levels in the Philippines, large numbers of Filipinos still struggle to find employment and meet their basic needs. Foreign Policy and Fund for Peace have named the Philippines as one of their top 60 failed states in the 2013 Failed States Report. Ranking 59 out of 178 countries, the Philippines scored a slightly improved but critical 82. 8 (â€Å"Failed States†). Five of its worst scores occurred in: security apparatus, including issues like riots and fatalities from rebel activity; factionalized elites, including power struggles and flawed elections; group grievance, including iolence between groups; state legitimacy, including corruption, level of government effectiveness, and illicit economies; and demographic pressures, including population growth, natural disasters, and disease (â€Å"The Indicators†). The aftermath of recent disasters and rebel conflict are likely to raise these rates for the coming report, bringing the Philippines closer to the brink of failure. Why, in the midst of unprecedented economic growth, is the country faring so poorly in terms of development indicators like poverty and political stability? Mainstream development discourse assures that rapid economic growth leads to evelopment and poverty reduction, but this has yet to be the case for Filipinos. In a previous paper I discuss the issue of the accuracy, reliability, and focus of poverty measurements and the development discourse itself, but there are larger factors at play as well. In this paper, I discuss how the history of corruption and neoliberalism, two contested but highly influential issues, have negatively impacted development as a whole in the Philippines and perpetuated the poverty of its population. According to a recent poll by the online periodical The Philippine Star, an verwhelming majority of the Filipino online public viewed corruption as the single largest cause of poverty in the Philippines. Revisiting Transparency International’s statistics in the Corruption Perceptions Index, Filipinos scored their country a 34 on a scale of 0-100, with O being highly corrupt and 100 being very clean (2012). Personal experience recalls an overt general mistrust in government officials having the people’s interests at heart, and a series of news reports detailing impeachments and scandals related to graft and corruption within both government and ongovernmental organizations from 2010 to 2012. Despite being an independent democracy since the late 1940s (the Marcos regime’s dictatorial break notwithstanding), the Philippines has suffered corrupt government officials in almost every presidency, most notably those of Marcos, Estrada and Arroyo (The Economist Intelligence Unit). According to Dr. Diane Desierto in an op-ed calling out to current President Benigno Aquino, corruption has strained the Philippine economy for decades, and the unrecoverable public funds lost to corruption at the cost of national investment is a national outrage. Most recently in the news is the Pork Barrel Scandal, where President Aquino and the ombudsmen have charged 3 senators, 2 former lawmakers, and a businesswoman for misusing over $200 million in state funds (Hookway). Pork Barrel is a state allocation of funds set aside for senators to use on development projects of their choice, of which the president says the accused used for fabricated project proposals to take personal kickbacks. Public protests against the scandal have been massive, and the people are calling for not only the eradication of the Pork Barrel fund itself, but of the president’s own spending fund as well. President Aquino faces the dilemma of upholding his strict anticorruption agenda, appealing to the public, and maintaining support of powerful lawmakers and congressmen (Hookway). James Hookway argues that Aquinds decision on the scandal will heavily determine foreign investor confidence in the Philippines, influencing the path of the countrys development. Indeed most development professionals agree that corruption and bad governance are inversely related to the development of a country. The worst indicators in the Philippine Failed States Report outwardly suggest governance issues re a threat to the state and a major cause of internal violence and conflict. Good governance has been the recent focus of many World Bank projects, the group stating that, â€Å"a capable and accountable state creates opportunities for poor people, provides better services, and improves development outcomes† (qtd. in Bello, â€Å"Is Corruption the Cause? â€Å"). Jeffrey Sachs names governance failures as a top factor in a countrys economic stagnation and decline; and William Easterly argues that bad governments, not a poverty trap, are sole culprits in the economic decline of a country (Sachs 57; Easterly 43). Easterlys stance on corruption is tough: continuing to provide aid to countries with corrupt governments is inefficient, as most countries with bad governments fare significantly worse even with aid than do countries with good governments (42). In the Philippines, all signs in mainstream discourse point to corruption as the major reason for continuing poverty despite high economic growth. Yet there is a small but growing number of people arguing otherwise. According to activists like Walden Bello, while corruption is detrimental to the trust and moral bonds of a democracy, it is not the principal cause of poverty. Between 1990 and 000, he argues, the Philippines and China reported the same levels of corruption; yet China grew by 10. 3 percent, while the Philippines grew by only 3. 3 percent (â€Å"Is Corruption the Cause? â€Å"). It is not corruption, he says, but the negative effects of neoliberal adjustment policies that have maintained poverty levels at the rate they are today (Bello). As Peet and Hartwick explain, neoliberalism was the economic response to Keynesian economics and the failures of Import Substitution Industrialization (IS’) that took hold of development discourse in the 1970s with the rise of the Reagan and Thatcher administrations. Influenced by Hayek’s theories, neoliberalism favored free markets and minimal government involvement outside of controlling interest rates and money supply (Peet 78-83). In response to the economic crises brought on by ISI in the 70s and 80s, developed nations and international organizations (10s) came up with the Washington Consensus, a list of policy reforms and conditions for debtor countries to the IMF to follow in order to receive loans. Reforms included fiscal discipline, decreased public expenditures, tax reform, low interest rates, trade liberalization and deregulation, privatization of public goods, and an increase in oreign direct investment (FDI) (Peet 84). According to Walden Bello, neoliberalism has become a hegemony of economic paradigm, especially in the Philippines. After the forced exile of Ferdinand Marcos and Corazon Aquinds rise to power, Bello says the country was more than primed for neoliberal structural adjustment policies when it turned to the World Bank during an economic crisis in the 80s (â€Å"Neoliberalism†). A number of factors led the Philippines to strongly adhere to neoliberal policies. One, technocrats close to former President Aquino were highly influenced by Reagan, Thatcher, and the free-market economic paradigm. Two, the University of the Philippines School of Economics published its anti-Marcos White Paper on the Philippine Economy, capturing the popular mood of the time that Marcos was proof that the state had become subject to ‘crony capitalism’ and was an inefficient source of development progress. Three, international events like the collapse of European socialism, the successful revitalization of U. S. and British economies, and the rise of newly industrialized Asian countries (though Bello argues these countries’ successes bore more from protectionism than neoliberalism) inspired the Philippine elites and middle class, who had the most influence over olicy discourse (â€Å"Neoliberalism†). With ISI and Keynesian economics shrouded by bad memories of the Marcos regime, and the Communist partys preoccupation with the anti-fascist struggle, Bello states there were no credible alternatives for the country but neoliberalism. In the 90s the Ramos administration kicked structural adjustment into high gear, being one of the few administrations in the region to fully adhere to IMF conditions. Focal to Philippine adjustment was massive tariff liberalization and deregulation to increase FDI and speculative investment, as well as a furious signing of multilateral ariff agreements with the WTO, ASEAN, the IMF, and the United Nations (Bello). The economy grew 4 percent during Ramos’ presidency, until the Asian Crisis hit the Philippines in 1997. Suddenly, $4 6 billion in speculative investments tlew out ot the country, triggering a downward slide into economic recession and stagnation. With the WTO Agreement in Agriculture, the Philippines went from a food net exporter to a net importer (particularly in rice, a main staple of the local agriculture sector), sparking a crisis of food insecurity and a loss of Job security in the agricultural industry. The Philippines also saw its local textile and manufacturing industries fail: â€Å"by the early years of this decade, the countrys textile industry had shrunk from 200 to less than 10 firms† (Bello, â€Å"Neoliberalism†). Loss of local industry was supposed to be bolstered by consumer welfare and increased spending as foreign investment brought diverse and stable employment; but this has not been the case for the Philippines; rather unemployment and underemployment rates have remained at a consistent high. Despite this and recent protests against globalization in the country, neoliberalism emains the central focus of economic policy in the Philippines (Bello). Ligaya Lindio McGovern also feels neoliberal policies and unequal globalization have been detrimental to the welfare of the Philippines, not only from a macroeconomic standpoint, but from a micropolitical level as well. According to McGovern, neoliberal policies implemented in the Philippines have only proven to benefit foreign actors and investors, perpetuating poverty in the country and detrimentally affecting the welfare of women and youth in particular (2). Food insecurity due to restricted agricultural access in world markets and an increased ependency on imports (coupled with fixed high prices to maximize profits) hurts women as they are mainly responsible for the nutritional welfare of the family. Privatization of water and social services puts foreign control over formerly local businesses, limiting the poor’s access to health care and clean water. Foreign influence over industry has led to the contractualization of labor, meaning short- term, low pay work that puts workers in a weak bargaining position. This has led to a massive loss of Jobs, setting preconditions for migration as Filipinos (mostly female domestic workers) go abroad to find work. This has subsequently led to an increased vulnerability in Filipino women for exploitation, downward mobility, and loneliness, and has been a root cause of the rise of human trafficking that has plagued the Philippines in recent years (McGovern 5-14). Ligaya argues that it is neoliberalism and the one-sided distribution of globalization-not corruption-that has led to a rise in militant groups such as GABRIELA, Migrante International, and the New People’s Army, all of whom fght against foreign and American imperialism through economic policy (McGovern 21). In recent years, the ideas of Bello and McGovern have taken hold, particularly hrough development economists like Easterly. While lamenting bad governments as a source of gross inefficiency in foreign aid appropriation, Easterly also speaks strongly against the macroeconomic, universally applicable solutions to poverty offered up by neoliberal policies. He argues such policies are too big and too utopian; with too much distance between principals at the top and implementers at the bottom to provide proper feedback and accountability, too much collective responsibility to create incentive, and too many large, nonspecific tasks bogging down change agents on the field to be effective (14-18). What, then, in light of both arguments as either corruption or neoliberalism as the major source ot poverty and inequali i the Philippines to do to resolve its gap between economic and social development? For Bello, the administration must rid itself of the neoliberal hegemonic stronghold and adopt alternative economic policies that focus on local empowerment of the people and permanent national employment. â€Å"Getting over neoliberalism,† he says, involves â€Å"†¦ getting beyond the worship of numbers that often acts as a shroud to the real, beyond the scientism that masks itself as a science† (Bello, â€Å"Neoliberalism†). McGovern advocates a similar, though more drastic route: a new Philippine state altogether that creates national alternatives to the neoliberal agenda (21). Like Stiglitz argues in his book, McGovern feels that true globalization has never been experienced, as powerful, industrialized countries controlling the flow of goods maintain protectionist policies in their own states while pushing for liberalization that benefits them in poorer countries (3; Stiglitz 62-101). In order for globalization to function, protectionist policies must also be advocated in industrializing countries, if not to the extent that ISI brought them in other regions. Proponents of free trade and economic development, on the other hand, argue that the Philippines must maintain its rapid GDP growth, continue to improve speculative investment climate, implement a broader tax base, and increase foreign ownership of its economic sectors (Elkan). In other words, institutions like the IMF continue to push neoliberal policy as an effective means for development. Increasing speculative investment and foreign direct investment means combatting corruption and bad governance for most proponents of the dominant discourse; the corruption scandals that have haunted the Philippines for decades have been a indrance to a thriving economy and led to increased political violence, and must be dealt with in order to see a reduction of poverty in the country. Ultimately, though, it is difficult to see how focusing on either one factor will lead to any real improvement in social welfare without also addressing the other; the two are both too entrenched in Philippine government. These are not dichotomous factors, rather they are deeply intertwined and coexistent in influencing poverty and social instability. Personal experience lends insight into instances where both corruption and neoliberal effects on society were clear. With a stipend affording me middle-class status in my neighborhood, I still could not afford to buy rice from the local farmers, and could barely afford the only slightly cheaper imported rice. During election time, the Congresswoman led a mass campaign to expand the main highway, only to abandon the project post-elections, leaving the road broken and difficult to traverse. Viewing development as a multifaceted and interconnected process comprising both macro and micropolitical elements, resolutions to development issues must also be viewed as such (Sen). Poverty reduction and development in the Philippines must nvolve both the eradication of rampant corruption and alternative options for neoliberal policies, which have largely failed the country outside of real GDP. Additionally, the government must focus its efforts on the needs of its people, rather than its own personal agenda, according to Desierto. In light of the recent typhoon and previous natural disasters, she says, â€Å"not a single administration has ever committed to making an integrated natural disaster prevention, remediation, and reconstruction system our countrys highest national security priority’ (â€Å"Corruption, Climate, and Congress†). Every administration nas promised he eradication ot corruption, though. Thus, it seems that the administration has allowed foreign institutions and its own political agenda to distract itself from the true needs of its people, which lie at the core of development. The key to poverty reduction then, in the context of the Philippines, is the increased and direct participation of Filipinos in decision-making for future economic and social policies.